Is African science true science? Reflections on the methods of African science

The general character of science and the methodology it employs are in specific terms referred to as observation and experimentation. These two methodologies reflect how science differs from other systematic modes of inquiries. This  description characterises, strictly, ‘Western science’ and it is contrasted with the indigenous mode of enquiry that has come under the name, ‘African science’. In contemporary scholarship, ‘African science’ is being condemned to the level of the mysticoreligious or supernaturalist worldview. ‘African science’ is said to be purely esoteric, personal, and devoid of elements of objectivity and rigorous theorization. In this paper, I re-examine this recondite issue by further reflecting and  strengthening some of the ideas put forward by some African scholars to affirm that there is a distinct method of ‘African science’ that can be termed scientific. In defending a pluralist thesis toward knowledge, scientific inclusive, this paper posits that there exist varieties of inquiry beyond what has been developed in the ‘West’ which can still be justifiably termed scientific. In addition to pluralism, it argues  further that the social character of science, which makes it a part of social and cultural traditions, qualifiedly justifies ‘African science’ as a true science. I will employ the newly formulated conversational method endorsed by the Conversational School of Philosophy (CSP) in this inquiry.Keywords: African science, mystico-religious, rigorous, pluralism, Western scienc

Towards Exploring an Enduring Liberal-Communitarianism in Karl Popper Through His Intellectual Biography

This paper offers here some new insights into the philosophy of critical rationalism through some accounts of Popper’s biography. In particular, it elaborates on the features of an enduring liberal-communitarianism in Popper that many commentators upon Popper do not see. The two important features are the individual and social aspects of Popper’s critical rationalism. These are, in my view, very essential to understanding Popper’s philosophy of science and Popper’s political philosophy. Events of Popper’s life together informed the development of his philosophy of science and his political philosophy. An essential balance in both can best be grasped by newly considering Popper’s biography and its context. Keywords: rationalism, liberal-communitarianism, individual, social, biography, Poppe

Karl Popper in Africa: Liberal-Communitarianism as Ideology for Democratic Social Reconstruction

This paper examines the liberal society that Popper lauds, that aims to be truly open, and discusses why another, more communitarian kind of society, particularly societies in Africa, may also reflect the quest for intellectual openness that is Popper’s ideal. Moreover, this paper avers reasons why Popper should be comfortable with such a liberal-communitarian mix. The inter-subjectivity in his critical rationalism is a balance of an explicit individualism, and an implicit social element (Afisi, 2016a). Popper is indeed an author of such a balance. For a society to be truly open requires the careful recognition and protection of individual freedom. However, the extent to which individuals are free to perform actions that they desire without external constraints, and the level of their individuality in relation to others when performing such actions, remain a contentious issue between liberals and more communitarian thinkers. Popper’s critical rationalism provides the necessary impetus to this contention through his view of freedom that I contend can best be viewed as carefully balanced, a view which combines individuality with a social element that upholds community values necessary for openness of society. With this combination, Popper’s politics of liberalism provides an effective model of how a truly open society can be achieved. The values inherent to Popper’s liberalism including those concerning intellectual openness, individual freedom, mutual respect, measured self-respect, welfarism, humanitarianism, accountability, critical debates and feedback from the citizens, together concern the conditions for a society to be truly open. There are many competing thoughts as to what openness might be in Popper’s philosophy. The present study of Popper does not presume to address them all. The focus here is specifically on using Popper’s idea of critical rationalism to balance relations between liberal politics of individual rights and freedom, and communitarian politics of the common good, as it relates to situations about how socio-economic and political conditions in Africa societies should be structured. While I contend that Popper’s works in political philosophy focused centrally on Western political tradition, and not about Africa in its strict sense, significant lessons can be distilled from Popper that can offer suggestions on social reforms in Africa. This paper explores Popper’s project of the open society across the plurality and differences of societies, so that his liberal ideas of individual freedom are not undermined, and the progress of the communitarian idea of the common good, that Africa societies are built upon, is also well enhanced. Liberal individualism and community values inherent to communitarianism are both well accommodated within Popper’s critical rationalism

SCIENTIFIC–TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION: A MEANS OF ENHANCED PRODUCTIVITY IN HUMAN SOCIETY.

This eprint has been removed at the author's request

THE PROBLEM OF INDUCTION AND KARL POPPER’S HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHODOLOGY: A CRITICAL EVALUATION

The focus of this paper is to examine the problem of induction as a methodology for science. It also evaluates Karl Popper’s deductive approach as the suitable methodology for scientific research. Popper calls his theory ‘hypothetico-deductive methodology’. However, this paper argues the thesis that Popper’s theory of hypothetico-deductive methodology, which he claims is the only appropriate methodology of science is fraught with some theoretical difficulties, which makes it unacceptable. Popper’s logical asymmetry between verification and falsification, we argue, is philosophically untenable. We argue the thesis for the complementarity of both inductive and deductive methodology in scientific investigation. This study seeks to establish the resonance of accepting both deductive and inductive reasoning as the basic methodologies upon which scientific research and discoveries proceed

On Karl Popper’s Liberal Principle of Freedom: The Individual and Social Aspects

In discussing the concept of individual freedom in Popper, I argue that there is room for the “social” in Popper’s liberal politics beyond the pervasive individualism. The moral core of his critical rationalism encourages the process of openness to criticism which entails both individual and social aspects. Although, Popper is critical of holists or collectivists doctrines which often accompany the idea of community, he does not discredit the values of social relation that foster community togetherness. The basis of this presupposition is that Popper’s individualism is a commitment which begins an analysis from the position of the individual rather than the community. Such a commitment does not in any way entail a disregard to community values of social relation or any selfless voluntary action that would benefit the community. In arguing for a balance of relations, within the context of Popper’s idea of freedom, between liberal politics and the community values in politics, I defend a thesis on social freedom. This position on social freedom is aimed at providing an alternative thesis for grounding the social character of freedom in Popper’s political philosophy. This delineates a conception of freedom that applies both individual and social aspects of Popper’s critical rationalism. The objective is to enhance Popper’s project of an open society and establish that his conception of freedom does not inhibit its application within the context of community. This is to the effect that social freedom does not undermine both the capacity of individuals to self-determination and the progress of the community that enhances human relationships

Re-echoing the Conservatism in Karl Popper’s Piecemeal Engineering

While Karl Popper highly valued the ability to invent a bold new form of theoretical thought, he warned us at the same time of the need to be cautious in action. Ambitions that are utopian or revolutionary seemed to Popper always unacceptable. We must always be open to reforming our practices, but we must attempt this slowly and piecemeal. Every change that we make we must hold open to criticism. However, change must be conservative and anti-revolutionary. This is the demand that while any one element of current culture may be criticised and rejected, it is important to do this work piecemeal and carefully. Only then does the audacity or boldness of rejecting a seemingly settled view amount to courage: for it reflects also significant conservation of values. Popper regarded no social change or scientific breakthrough as revolutionary. Even the process of conjecture and refutation, of trial and error, is a piecemeal method. Popper’s piecemeal method depicts Otto Neurath’s metaphor of not dismantling the whole ship except perhaps one plank at a time, replacing each plank as the effort goes on. Every step is as conservative as it is also bold, and that alone helps make it courageous. It is only through this conservatism, the piecemeal anti-revolutionary change, that people can become bold in how they experiment and replace some formerly received norm or idea.While Karl Popper highly valued the ability to invent a bold new form of theoretical thought, he warned us at the same time of the need to be cautious in action. Ambitions that are utopian or revolutionary seemed to Popper always unacceptable. We must always be open to reforming our practices, but we must attempt this slowly and piecemeal. Every change that we make we must hold open to criticism. However, change must be conservative and anti-revolutionary. This is the demand that while any one element of current culture may be criticised and rejected, it is important to do this work piecemeal and carefully. Only then does the audacity or boldness of rejecting a seemingly settled view amount to courage: for it reflects also significant conservation of values. Popper regarded no social change or scientific breakthrough as revolutionary. Even the process of conjecture and refutation, of trial and error, is a piecemeal method. Popper’s piecemeal method depicts Otto Neurath’s metaphor of not dismantling the whole ship except perhaps one plank at a time, replacing each plank as the effort goes on. Every step is as conservative as it is also bold, and that alone helps make it courageous. It is only through this conservatism, the piecemeal anti-revolutionary change, that people can become bold in how they experiment and replace some formerly received norm or idea

Karl Popper’s critical rationalism and the politics of liberal-communitarianism.

Whether there are prospects for a liberal-communitarian philosophy with aims and objectives that enhance Karl Popper’s project of the open society I here argue in the affirmative. Such a philosophy promotes both self-determination by individuals and community enhancement of individual well-being. My argument for a liberal-communitarian philosophy develops out of Popper’s critical rationalism, exploiting the fact that in Popper’s philosophy, science and politics are intertwined and each is defined by both individual and social elements. In particular, Popper’s politics of liberalism are derived from the ethical and epistemological core of his critical rationalism, the latter originating in his philosophy of science, the former preceding it. Individuals become socially embedded with others as they engage in mutual criticism that is based upon a rational understanding of mutual respect, unity, and tolerance. I defend ontological claims about the social nature of the self and normative claims about the value of community which together make intelligible the idea that the self cannot exist outside of the context of community. This implies that the very consciousness of the self is constituted by interaction, interconnectedness and interrelationship with others. How well a philosophy that upholds individualism marries with the idea of the community, I show that Popper’s critical rationalism fruitfully addresses. Society must protect the individual’s capacity for rational criticism. Rational criticism is mutualistic. Critical rationalism as regards both science and politics is implicitly communitarian. Although Popper’s politics of liberalism are overtly individualistic, they also are implicitly communitarian. Popper’s ideas offer a basis for rational engagement with non-liberal ideologies that emphasis social and community togetherness